Hitler Was A Man Of The People - 1564 Words

Hitler was a man of the people. He was a great orator and was talented at public speaking. Using that gift he was able to rally a crippled Germany behind him to become one of the world’s strongest super powers pre WWII. Hitler was loved by his people and feared by his enemies. His following of those early philosophers was how he founded the Nazi party. He would have pleased Machiavelli with his ability to be both the fox and the lion. Hitler was cunning and smart, he was able to turn himself around from seemingly homeless to the head of the German state. He was also able to rally the Germans behind him, he was courageous and strong and that appealed to the German people. â€Å"Extinguish the line of Princes† was a quote from Machiavelli meaning that the new Prince, in an effort to maintain his position, should remove anyone who posed a threat to his power. Hitler did just that when he elected himself Dictator and dissolved the parliament beneath him. He gave himself ult imate control over Germany. Hitler would have disappointed Machiavelli by being reckless. All of Machiavelli’s work boils down to a Prince gaining power and using any means necessary to keep it. The German war machine, while would have been impressive, caused Hitler to fall to exactly what Machiavelli warned against. Machiavelli is quoted saying â€Å"He who is blinded by ambition, raises himself to a position whence he cannot mount higher, must thereafter fall with the greatest loss.† Such a quote is very fitting ofShow MoreRelatedCauses and Consequences of World War II777 Words   |  3 PagesII started after Adolf Hitler signs the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler shortly attacks Poland, not keeping his promise. Shortly after the attack France and Britain declare war on Germany. Hitler was the cause of World War II since he broke the treaty causing other countries like Britain and France to declare war. Hitler kept all the Jews in concentration camps because he thought they were not humans but animals. Hitler was labeled as a supremacist to all other races. He was seeing Jews as the faultRead MoreHitler s Influence On Society883 Words   |  4 PagesTwo was filled with many different leaders, who all carried different leadership tactics that supported the efforts of the war in various ways. Two leaders that had a huge impact on the outcome of the war were Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler. These two leaders were most commonly known for their negative impact on society; however, I am choosing to compare the good that these two leaders did for their country during their time in leadership. Hitler took control of Germany in 1933. While Hitler is commonlyRead MoreAdolf Hitler : A Good Leader863 Words   |  4 Pagesmany dictators in different countries found throughout the world, Adolf Hitler being one of the most prominent in history. Hitler was not mentally stable or considered normal, and is now considered a monster in today’s society. I believe that Hitler knew what he was doing even though he was not mentally sound. There are no excuses for the things this man made his country do to the Jewish people. Although Adolf Hitler was considered mentally ill, this does not excuse him for his actions ofRead MoreA Comparative Study of Nelson Mandela and Adolf Hitler Essay1160 Words   |  5 PagesA Comparative Study of Nelson Mandela and Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler and Nelson Mandela are vastly different men, however in many ways through out their lives they both held a huge influence over their countrymen, the politics of their country and inevitably they both shaped the course of history for better or worse. Their fight, was not won without a struggle, but was helped by their masterful oratorical skills and the willingness of their followers to do anything forRead MoreThe Treaty Of Versailles Was A Peace Treaty921 Words   |  4 PagesAdolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889 in Austria. Hitler was a German politician and the leader of the Nazi Party. Adolf Hitler was a decorated veteran from World War I. The Treaty of Versailles directly affected the German people and Hitler. The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty set in place at the end of World War I to end the war. One of the most crucial and contentious problems with this treaty was it required that the country of Germany to disarm, take guilt and pay apologies toRead MoreA Comparative Study of Nelson Mandela and Adolf Hitler1502 Words   |  7 PagesAdolf Hitler and Nelson Mandela are vastly different men, however in many ways through out their lives they both held a huge influence over their countrymen, the politics of their country and inevitably they both shaped the course of history for better or worse. Their fight, was not won without a struggle, but wa s helped by their masterful oratorical skills and the willingness of their followers to do anything for the cause. Following the First World War Germanys economy began to fail, the GermanRead MoreHitler s Influence On The World War II1690 Words   |  7 PagesAdolf Hitler was a very impressive man in some people’s eyes, but his life took one major roller coaster before he gained the power that he had. As a young child Hitler seemed to not want to join the military, but once he, did he found a path leading to his future. Hitler worked his way through the war and seemed to start gaining power. Once Hitler was at the top, he started to terminate people by sending them to concentration camps scattered around the country, quickly killing thousands. Hitler’sRead MoreThe Importance Of Adolf Hitler1480 Words   |  6 PagesEver wonder how a man can rise in power and almost take over the world? Hitler almost took over the world and did it ruthlessly to get where he got. How do you get to be a supreme leader from being a lowly citizen? It may seem impossible, but if you’re in the rig ht place at the right time, speaking your mind and others agree, you could rise to the top. Adolf Hitler did just that and became to be one of the most corrupt and malicious dictators of all time. Hitler’s leadership was vitally importantRead MoreHitler Adolf Hitler is possibly the most infamous name in history. Undoubtedly the first thing1100 Words   |  5 PagesHitler Adolf Hitler is possibly the most infamous name in history. Undoubtedly the first thing that appears in one’s head at the sound of this horrible name is a swastika, or his mustache. That extremely fashionable way to style one’s facial hair was so easily ruined by one man alone: Hitler. He was a truly evil man. The clearest villain in modern history. How did someone as evil as Hitler rise to power? Surely someone would have stopped him before he rose all the way to emperor of Germany. WeRead More Postion Paper: Who Was More Carzed Stalin Or Hitler1586 Words   |  7 Pages Who was more Crazed: Stalin or Hitler? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The obviously more crazed man was Joseph Stalin. Stalin was more crazed because over his time and rule, he killed millions upon millions more people that Hitler. Joseph Stalin is also more crazed because he did not kill other people he was racist against, but simply because he wanted to kill. The book Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives, states quot; Adolf Hitlers actions can not even be compared to the monstrous actions of Joseph

Why it is important to have emotional intelligence in the...

Why Emotional Intelligence Is Important To Have In The Workplace MGMT 201 11/21/2013 Introduction There are many different characteristics a person needs to possess in order to be an effective leader and to be an asset to a company. Besides having a high IQ a leader must be able to evaluate a business environment, manage tasks efficiently, promote strategic thinking and innovation, and manage change. All the traits just mentioned are extremely important, although, recent studies have showed one of the more important characteristics a leader must possess in order to be effective is emotional intelligence. What is Emotional Intelligence? Imagine if everyone in the workplace was not able to†¦show more content†¦An individual can learn this skill through practice and will help them reach goals in a positive way. Furthermore, studies have showed that taking anger management courses greatly impacts a person’s ability to acquire emotional intelligence. Empathy is the last skill an individual should retain when dealing with emotional intelligence. Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of others. The more empathetic an individual is towards others feelings the better that individual will be dealing with situations. The skills needed when dealing with emotional intelligence will help an individual connect with coworkers more effectively and ultimately be a leader in the marketplace (Novick). Attaining Emotional Intelligence in the Office A recent study conducted by the Consortium for Research revealed that the majority of corporations all agree that having emotional intelligence in the workplace is extremely essential when it relates to being successful. Some companies referred to salespeople who have the attribute of emotional intelligence were able to connect with customers better by better understanding their needs, which successively assisted them in building a trusting relationship with them. They also referred to customer service employees who also had emotional intelligence to handle aggressive situations with angry customers more effectively than those employees who lacked this trait. Furthermore,Show MoreRelatedEmotional Intelligence On The Workplace1528 Words   |  7 PagesEmotional Intelligence in the Workplace When most people think of emotional intelligence (EI), they are unsure about what exactly that phrase means. Is it someone who is very emotional? Someone who is very smart? What is it and why is it important in the workplace? Emotional intelligence is a phrase that encompasses many different traits that a person could have as far as maintaining control in the workplace and also how to read people and different things they may be feeling. Emotional intelligenceRead MoreEmotional Intelligence And Psychological Intelligence1493 Words   |  6 PagesHave you ever thought about how many emotions you have in one single day? Now think about how many emotions you have had just at work alone. Emotions are extremely important and can rule our lives daily. We make decisions off of them, choose activities based on them and the way we react in situations can depend on them. When digging deeper you will find a concept called â€Å"emotional intelligence† which puts you in tune with n ot only your emotions but the emotions of others as well. This paper willRead MoreEmotional Intelligence And Personal Intelligence1571 Words   |  7 Pagesthe task to explain emotional intelligence, and give two (2) example of the concept. Second, to examine, the concept of â€Å"emotional quotient† compared to traditional â€Å"intelligence quotient.† Third to suggest two to three (2-3) reasons why leaders’ need emotional intelligence to manage today’s workforce, as well as to speculate on at least two (2) possible consequences should a leader not possess emotional intelligence. Fourth, to explore the elements of emotional intelligence that leaders must beRead MoreEmotional Intelligence And Human Resource Management1144 Words   |  5 Pagesyears, many people have written about emotional intelligence role in the workplace. Experts belong to emotional intelligence (EI) field provides many models and definitions to understand the concept and meaning of emotional intelligence and its effects on individual’s (Employees, managers, supervisors) performance. As the world is becoming organizational world and as the time passes change is occurring in almost every field. Thus Organizations (public and private sector) have to manage change effectivelyRead MoreWhat Really Matters For Success1090 Words   |  5 Pageslife long achievements is a definite set of emotional skills† (Goleman). Observations indicate that organizations seek the same set of competencies; emotional intelligence, good judgement, integrity, global mindset, resilience and learning agility (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2015). These competencies, are an intrinsic aspect with regard to workplace performance and success in business. Having an in-depth understanding of my skills is important for effective workplace performance. In this portfolio, I examineRead MoreEmotional Intelligence and Leadership1065 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Introduction What is Daniel Golemans Theory of Emotional Intelligence? How does Golemans theory relate to leadership in the workplace or in the political milieu? Why is image management important for leadership? Answers to these and other issues will be presented in this paper. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Daniel Goleman uses an analogy to present his theory on emotional intelligence; he notes that it was Super Bowl Sunday, and the game wasRead MoreThe Achievement Of Emotional Balance And Customer Retention1323 Words   |  6 PagesMost books on human relations in the workplace contain strategies on effective workplace practices. Developing and maintaining a strategic plan is the responsibility of a leader. The use of appropriate strategies improves not only the atmosphere of the work environment but also productivity. Leaders should understand the implications of developing and maintaining a productive workplace. Focusing on developing improved lines of communication between co-workers and management will lead to job satisfactionRead MoreEmotional Inelligence Essay examples1669 Words   |  7 Pagesyears emotional intelligence has become one of the hottest topics between organizations. Researches have been working on this topic for time to time, to demonstrate or refute the import ance of feelings. In the beginning common thoughts from managers and or supervisors were; emotions are in the way; emotions try to keep us from making good decisions; emotions increase a lack on focusing. Fortunately, an indeed research takes emotional intelligence to an ultimate ideal in which intelligence is basedRead MoreThe Importance of Emotional Intelligence In Kreamer ´s Article Go Ahead - Cry At Work1296 Words   |  6 Pages For decades men have dominated the work force of America. It was not until recently that women began entering the business world and to this day they continue to battle for equality in the workplace. Leadership positions and salary negotiations are what normally come to mind when discussing the obstacles that women face at work. An article that appeared in Time Magazine called â€Å"Go Ahead- Cry at Work†, by Anne Kreamer, discusses Kreamer’s personal challenges with expressing her emotions at work,Read MoreEmpathy and Understanding wit h Emotional Intelligence743 Words   |  3 Pagesthis understanding and management of emotions that is the basis for Emotional Intelligence, or simply â€Å"EI†. In its simplest terms, EI is â€Å"the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking† (Mayer, Salovey and Caruso, lines 47-48). Emotional Intelligence helps us understand and empathize with a tribulation or problem that other people are facing. Though many psychologists believed that the IQ was more important, new research suggests that EI is more critical for daily life because

Is Hamlet Mad Research Essay - 971 Words

Is Hamlet Mad Research Essay Although he is depressed, Hamlet is a sane man pretending to be mad for a very specific purpose, to solve the murder of his father. The beginning of the play Hamlet gives the impression he is insane. Anytime he interacts with the characters he acts out of control and mad. On the other hand, when Hamlet has his alone time or with Horatio he is composed and sane. Furthermore, Hamlet is not mad, he is acting as though he is mad to formulate his feelings, new plans, and to gain evidence. It is important to first observe the causes of young prince to act up this way and let his anger overcome his emotions. Shakespeare analysis of the prince hurtful emotion explained in the following way: Hamlet is broken up over his father’s death, the hasty marriage of mother and Claudius. â€Å"She married. O, most wicked speed, to post with such dexterity to incestuous sheets! It is not nor it cannot come to good: But break, my heart; for I must hold my tongue.† (1.1.1555). Even though he feels his mother betrayed his father by marrying his uncle, Hamlet would not hurt his mother because he still love her but hate her at the same time for the choices she made. At this moment in the play, he does not indicate any signs of madness, only sorrow. â€Å"The funeral bak’d meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables.† DiYanni (1.1.1555). Afterwards, Hamlet good friend Horatio comes to inform him that he has seen the king Hamlet father yesternight. H oratio directShow MoreRelatedThe Pretended Madness of Hamlet in Hamlet Essay761 Words   |  4 PagesIn Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the main character Hamlet is believed to have gone insane after the death of his father. There is much evidence in the play that causes one to believe that Hamlet is in fact crazy. However, there are also indications to the contrary, Hamlet only feigns madness for the purpose of carrying out his mission. He rehearses his pretend madness first with Ophelia for even if he fails to convince her , that failure would not cause him any harm. The language he uses is clearlyRead MoreHamlets Fatal Flaw Essay688 Words   |  3 PagesShakespeare’s Hamlet is an interesting play in many ways. The character Hamlet is particularly intriguing in regards to his fatal flaw. Hamlet’s fatal flaw is a specific trait that forces him to postpone killing the king and it is this trait that drives Hamlet mad (Shakespeare 1.4.23-38). This Shakespearean trage dy is open to many interpretations of Hamlet’s fatal flaw. Two recent film productions of the play, Kenneth Branaugh’s Hamlet and the Zeffirelli’s Hamlet, each show a different fatal flawRead MoreFather-Child Relationships in Hamlet and Fences1223 Words   |  5 PagesFather-Child Relationships in Hamlet and Fences In both William Shakespeares Hamlet and August Wilsons Fences, the emphasis placed on parent-child relationship is vital, as family plays an important role in developing a characters values as well as his or her upbringing does. While Ophelia, Laertes, and Hamlet show loyalty to their fathers unconditionally, Cory, even though looks up Troy as a figure, eventually exhibits disrespect to him. The relationship that Ophelia shares with her fatherRead More Sanity: Boundaries of the Mind Essay1493 Words   |  6 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The mind is a beautiful thing. The boundaries that someone can extend their rationality is different in each and every person. In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the balance of sanity and madness is tested. Hamlet’s way of thinking is changed, but in a way that his personality is only a front. By looking at the different events that Hamlet overcame, we can observe the passion for acting that many readers do not come across; knowing the importance of acting is imperative when questioning Hamlet’sRead More Vengeance in Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights2442 Words   |  10 PagesVengeance in Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights Love, betrayal and revenge play leading roles in both Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Emily Bronte’s â€Å"Wuthering Heights.† Both works feature doomed relationships, a ghostly haunting, and death. The court at Elsinore, despite its luxurious setting, almost mirrors the seclusion of the Yorkshire moors of Wuthering Heights — making both settings almost prison like. But, it is not setting that makes both works interesting: it is theRead MoreFeminist Theory Applied to Hamlet2809 Words   |  12 PagesDesolation Row, to Cannon Mills, which has named a flowery sheet pattern after her, is in inverse relation to her invisibility in Shakespearean critical texts. Why has she been such a potent and obsessive figure in our cultural mythology? Insofar as Hamlet names Ophelia as â€Å"woman† and â€Å"frailty,† substituting an ideological view of femininity for a personal one, is she indeed representative of Woman, and does her madness stand for the oppressio n of women in society as well as in tragedy? FurthermoreRead MoreThe Tragedy Of Hamlet By William Shakespeare2594 Words   |  11 Pagesmost renowned tragedies is Hamlet. In this classic tragedy the protagonist, Hamlet, pursues revenge and seeks justice against the antagonist, Claudius, for the murder of King Hamlet. As a result of his pursuits, Hamlet, his family, and most of his acquaintances all meet the same demise: death. Through the characters in Hamlet, Shakespeare incorporates the concept of how often the thoughts and actions of people can be contradictory to their true motives. Shakespeare?s Hamlet contains the reoccurringRead MoreTheme of Madness and Causes: Hamlet and Ophelia Essay1788 Words   |  8 PagesIn Shakespeares Hamlet, there are two characters that display qualities of insanity. Specifically, Hamlet and Ophelia, although they both appear to be mad at times, their downfall (or supposed downfall) is quite different. Ophelias madness seems complete while Hamlet s is questionable throughout the play. Hamlets madness comes and goes; Ophelias does not. Ophelia tells no one that she is mad; on the other hand, Hamlet shows everyone about his madness. Hamlet turns his madness on and off dependingRead MoreEssay The Central Question of Hamlet2409 Words   |  10 PagesThe Central Question of Hamlet  Ã‚      Hamlets tragedy is a tragedy of failure-the failure of a man placed in critical circumstances to deal successfully with those circumstances. In some ways, Hamlet reminds us of Brutus in Shakespeares Julius Caesar. Hamlet and Brutus are both good men who live in trying times; both are intellectual, even philosophical; both men want to do the right thing; both men intellectualize over what the right thing is; neither man yields to passion. But here theRead MoreSAT Top 30 Essay Evidence18536 Words   |  75 PagesP age |1 Top 30 Examples to Use as SAT Essay Evidence An exclusive special report from eSATPrepTips.com By Christian Heath P age |2 Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 4 Adventurers and Explorers: Amelia Earhart (Female Aviation Pioneer) ................................................................................................ 5 Christopher

Democracy and High Level Corruption free essay sample

Studies of the Effect of Democracy on Corruption Shrabani Saha and Neil Campbell Department of Applied and International Economics Massey University, Palmerston North New Zealand Corresponding author: Shrabani Saha Email: S. [emailprotected] ac. nz Phone: 64 (6) 350 5999 Extn. 2663 Fax: 64 (6) 350 5660 Prepared for the 36th Australian Conference of Economists ‘Economics of Corruption Session’ Tasmania, Australia, 24-26 September, 2007 Draft: Please do not cite without authors’ permission. 1 Abstract This paper studies the influence of democracy on the level of corruption. In particular, does democracy necessarily reduce a country’s level of corruption? The growing consensus reveals that there is an inverse correlation between democracy and corruption; the more democracy and the less corruption. This study argues that a simple ‘electoral democracy’ is not sufficient to reduce corruption. The role of sound democratic institutions, including an independent judiciary and an independent media along with active political participation is crucial to combat corruption. To illustrate the ideas, this study develops a simple model that focuses on the role of democratic institutions, where it assumes that the detection technology is a function of democracy. Under this assumption, the active and effective institutions lead to careful monitoring of agents, which increases the probability of detection and punishment of corrupt activities and reduces the level of corruption. Keywords: Corruption; Bribery; Democracy; Development JEL classification: D73; K42 2 1. Introduction Corruption is viewed as one of the most severe bottlenecks in the process of economic development and in modernizing a country particularly in developing countries. Recent empirical research on the consequences of corruption confirms that there is a negative relationship between corruption and economic growth. High level of corruption lowers the ratio of total and private investment to GDP, and, consequently, lower economic growth (Mauro, 1995). However, very little is known for sure what causes corruption and why some countries are more corrupt than others. This study attracts attention to the causes of corruption and in particular the focus is on the influence of democracy on the level of corruption. The growing consensus reveals that there is an inverse correlation between democracy and corruption; the more democracy and the less corruption. This study argues that a simple ‘electoral democracy’1 is not sufficient to reduce corruption. A simple ‘electoral democracy’ manifests multi-party system regularly competing for power through (relatively) free and fair elections but deficient in many important aspects that define a liberal democracy2. Many electoral democracies, under the mask of political participation political elites continue to manipulate the electoral process to legitimize their retention of power and use of the state machinery in pursuit of their own interests (Doig, 2000). The role of sound democratic institutions, including an independent judiciary and an independent media along with political participation is crucial to combat corruption, because the sound democratic institutions and healthy political competition can significantly contribute to accelerating anti-corruption reform. The histories of countries where once-high levels of corruption have fallen support this view. To illustrate the ideas, this study develops a simple model that focuses on the role of democratic 1 2 Tronquist, O. , Politics and Development (London: Sage, 1999), 98. Liberal democracy secures the rule of law, a separation of powers and protection of liberties. See the link: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Democracy. 3 institutions, where it assumes that the detection technology is a function of democracy. Under this assumption the active and effective institutions ead to careful monitoring of agents which increases the probability of detection and punishment of corrupt activities and reduces the level of corruption. In other words, well-functioning institutions where law and enforcement are a potential threat to corruption can restrain the level of corruption. The idea that democracy has a negative impact on corruption is indisputable. However, the degree of influence of democratic refor m on corruption levels is not straightforward and uniform. Early work on democracy and corruption shows the contradictory findings. The main reason for the disagreement among researchers resides in the multidimensionality characteristics of â€Å"democracy† or â€Å"democratization†. The empirical analyses mostly support the negative corruption-democracy association (Goldsmith, 1999; Sandholtz and Koetzle, 2000; Treisman, 2000; Montinola and Jackman, 2002; Sung, 2004; Bohara, Mitchell and Mittendorff, 2004). Yet, some of these studies differ in directions of the impact of democratic reforms on the level of corruption. Democracy viewed as freedom of speech nurtures an investigative journalism that exposes and deters corrupt public activities (Giglioli, 1996). Other studies find the non-linear relationship between corruption and democracy. Despite the eruptions of corruption among intermediate democracies, the consolidation of advanced democratic institutions eventually reduced corruption. Ultimately, the initial political conditions and the final democratic achievements determined the magnitude of political corruption (Montinola and Jackman, 2002; Sung, 2004). While the current degree of democracy was not significant, long exposure to democracy predicted lower corruption (Treisman, 2000). In contrast, Ades and Di Tella, (1999) find political rights had no significant impact on 4 corruption because countries like Hong Kong and Singapore experience very low corruption even though they have low political rights. The transformation from authoritarian regime towards democracy is complicated. Autocratic countries can not become mature consolidated democracies overnight. Democratization is a slow process. Moreover, intermediate regimes are the most conflictprone, which possess inherent contradictions as a result of being neither democratic nor autocratic (Herge, Ellingsen and Gates, 2001). Numerous observations of renewed corrupt practices induced by political liberalization in South East Asia and former Soviet Republic (Cohen, 1995; Harris-White and White, 1996) add disturbances in a linear and negative democracy-corruption association and provide evidences for high level of corruption during democratization. Examples of a negative connection between democracy and corruption abound. However, there are numerous examples where this negative correlation between democracy and corruption does not exist. Consider, for example, the case of India. India, the largest liberal democratic nation as well as one of the most corrupt nation in the world. According to Transparency Internationals report for 2001, India is the 72nd most corrupt country in the world, out of 90 countries surveyed. Democracy simply viewed as political participation does not ensure protection of liberties and public interest. Existence of high level of corruption in India can be explained by Gunnar Myrdal’s3 notion of India as a â€Å"Soft State† where, law is there but the enforcement is poor. In other words, lack of enforcement against corrupt activities flourishes corruption in India. On the other hand, country like Singapore, corruption was wide spread in the 1950s, but the situation is totally different today. Singapore is widely recognized as a squeaky clean government 3 Myrdal, G. (1968). Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations. New York: Pantheon, vol. I, pp. -66. 5 with very little corruption (Klitgaard, 1988). Singapore establishes representative democracy4, representatives retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. However, the enforcement seems almost ludicrously strict, which accounts for Singapore’s success in controlling corruption. This study explores the hypothesis that a simple electoral democracy does not necessarily reduce a country’s level of corruption. Only well-functioning democracy with sound institutional background can deter corruption, where the probability of being caught acting corruptly is high. A fully-formed democracy is, of course, more than a democratically elected government. It requires effectively operating institutions particularly, judiciary, police force and press and active political participation. 2. Theory behind the democracy-corruption association Theoretically, autocratic systems are characterized by the monopolization of power in the hands of the small elite, with few or no constraints to prevent the small elite exercising their own interest and thus, the high level of corruption prevails in the autocratic regime. In contrast, democratic systems are characterized by diffuse authority, where the executive branches of government is balanced by an elected parliament and an independent judiciary, and where open elections allow actors alternate in power, which act as a threat to the corrupt political elites and has a lowering effect on the corruption level. The transformation from autocratic regime towards democracy through political liberalization is often presumed to reduce the level of corruption. However, the generally agreed increase in corruption levels in transition countries is not consistent with view that democracy has a negative impact on the level of corruption. The increased corruption Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people along with few binding restrictions. See the link: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Democracy 4 6 evel in transition countries can be best described as ‘decentralized corruption’ by Shleifer and Vishny, (1993), where transformation towards democracy represents a transformation from joint monopoly power to individual monopoly power of the political elites. The transformation towards individual monopoly power increases the amount of bribe charged by each government official. Accordingly, countries in East Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe exper ience high level corruption during democratic transition the late 1980s and early 1990s. The weak institutional framework in the newly democratized countries also increases the opportunities of high level of corruption. The newly democratized countries are mostly categorized as electoral democracies and they are more likely to score in the low-end of ‘free’ category of nations as tracked by the Freedom House5. Dahl, (1971), argues that democracy without participation is an absurdity but participation without an effective institutional framework would be futile and chaotic. Democracy represents institutional arrangements to secure rule of law, participation of the people in the activities of the state, and, the institutional embodiment of a concern with the identification and realization of public interest (Doig, 2000). In democracies, government officials derive their authority from and serve the interests of the public, at least in principle. Furthermore, the citizenry possesses more, and more effective, means of detecting and punishing corruption in a democracy than it does in more autocratic forms of government. Basic democratic freedoms, like those of assembly, speech, and press, allow people and groups to uncover information, demand inquiries, and publicize their discoveries. Corrupt acts are by their nature secret, and secrets are harder to keep in an open society. Once the public is aroused over a corruption scandal, the organs of 5 See Freedom House (2003). 7 government have powerful incentives to prosecute and punish miscreants or at least to be seen to do so. A fully developed democracy is an ideal state with well-functioning and effective institutions along with active participation of the people. It describes a situation, where, combination of free media, an independent judiciary, an active and efficient police force, and people’s participation portray a viable threat to the corrupt behaviour which has a negative effect on corruption. Thus, the more extensive democratic freedoms and the more effective democratic institutions are the less the level of corruption. Accordingly, in well-functioning and institutionally consistent democracies rule of law and enforcement of law work side by side and leading to the dampening effect on corruption. Despite of the increase in the level of corruption in the early stage of democratization, a consolidated well-functioning democracy is able to reduce corruption level of a country. 3. The model To illustrate the ideas about the effect of the transformation from dictatorship towards a well advanced democracy has on the extent of corruption, the study considers the simple model of a bureaucracy regulating the private agents in the economy. The bureaucrat has the power either to issue new permits or licenses to operate private economic activities, or, regulating the conduct of private firms in the economy. The bureaucrat has the opportunity to restrict the quantity. If the bureaucrat is corrupt, then he collects bribes6 in return for providing the permits. Corruption, as defined here, is the amount of bribe Any extra payment on top of the actual price made to the bureaucrat by a private agent for getting permits or licenses will be termed a â€Å"bribe. † 6 8 payment demanded from the private agents for providing permits or licenses by the bureaucrats. We assume that the money associated with bribe b is defined as: b = k1 + k2 el (1) where k1, k2 ? 0. The bribe b is a function of level of corruption l and db/dl gt; 0. The level of corruption in a country reflects the corrupt behaviour (i. e. , bribes demanded by government officials and, or, bribes offered to government officials by the private agents) of that country. High levels of corruption mean greater overall rents extracted by the state. The level of corruption also varies with the bureaucratic hierarchy (RoseAckerman, 1978). At the low-level, because of more competition among bureaucrats the magnitude of bribes per decision or quantity is far less. In contrast, high-level bureaucrat faces less competition, which raises the magnitude of bribes per decision. The bribe function is structured to capture the existence of corruption even if the countries are declared as corruption free according to corruption perception index. Even though k1 is very small but still it is positive. Think of a country like New Zealand. Transparency International’s 2005 corruption index confirms the squeaky clean image of New Zealand as it scores 9. 6 and tied for the second place with Finland. The Corruption Index7 is constructed on a perceptions scale of zero to 10 with zero indicating the most corrupt and 10 indicating the most honest. However, despite the country’s reputation, cases involving bribery and corruption of officials continue to come before the courts8. The total volume of bribe m collected by the corrupt bureaucrat is the number of permits or licenses issued by the bureaucrat, n, times the amount of bribes collected per permit or license b, i. e. , m = n * b = n (k1 + k2 el) 7 8 (2) http://www. transparency. rg/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2005. New Zealand Herald Story, 16 September 2000. 9 Now, consider the key assumption of this analysis, that being the probability of detection ? increases with the advancement of democracy and once the corrupt bureaucrat is detected he gets punished immediately. For the purpose of this study, we think of a democracy index, d, that runs from 10 to 0, where 10 is full dictatorship and 0 is full democracy. In a situation of full dictatorship, there are no legal, or, other, constraints to prevent the dictator exercising his will. Thus, the probability that the dictator will be caught acting corruptly is negligible, even zero. In contrast, with full democracy, all institutions, associated with the modern democratic state, operate effectively. Thus there is a high probability even one, that a corrupt act will be detected and punished. Therefore, the probability of detection will be formalized by a function represented as: ? = c1 + c2 e – d (3) where, 0 ? d ? 10, and, 0 ? c1, c2 ? 1. The detection function is formulated based on the idea that the democracy index d mostly depends on independent judiciary (j), police (p), free and active media (m). The democracy index d can be expressed as: d = e1 j + e2 p + e3 m (4) where, 0 ? e1, e2, e3 ? 1, and, 0 ? j, p, m ? 1. The detection function ? also depends on an informed and educated population and the degree of political participation in the country. In other words, the detection of corrupt activities is determined by how likely that the population knows that corruption is occurring and how able they are to do something about it, which is captured in the detection function as c1. Now, we assume that the bureaucrat is paid the ongoing wage w. If corrupt, he receives his wage w plus the total volume of bribes income m with probability (1- ? ), and with 10 probability ? , he loses everything subject to the limited liability9. Hence, the utility of the corrupt bureaucrat is given by Ub = ( w + m ) ( 1- ? ) Substituting the value of m and ? , the utility function can be rewritten as: Ub = [ w + n ( k1 + k2 el )] ( 1- c1 c2 e d ) (6) (5) The utility of the corrupt bureaucrat depends on the level of corruption, as well as the level of democracy. For a given level of democracy, the utility ncreases with the level of corruption. Likewise, for a given level of corruption, the utility increases with less democracy. The relationships between utility and level of corruption and democracy are shown in figure 1: Figure 1: (a) Relationship between utility and level of corruption (b) Relationship between utility and democracy d=10 d=1 d=0 l=4 l=1l=0 l (a) (b) d The figure 1(a), shows the direct relationship between utility and level of corruption. For a given level of democracy utility level increases with level of corruption and as the 9 See Acemoglu and Verdier (2000). 11 values of d increases the curve shifts upward which indicates that for a given level of corruption utility level increases as democracy level decreases and the probability of detection decreases. Similarly, as democracy level decreases or d increases, the utility level increases in figure 1(b) and for higher levels of corruption the curve shifts upward to the left indicating that the higher the level of corruption the higher is the level of utility. The corrupt bureaucrat maximizes this expected utility function by choosing l with a given level of d. Thus, the bureaucrat’s expected utility maximization problem can be expressed as: Maxl,d [ w + n ( k1 + k2 el )] ( 1- c1 c2 e d ) (7) Now, one unit increase in the level of corruption and the democracy level changes the utility level of the bureaucrat which can be determined by the total differentiation of the utility function as follows: dUb = dUb / dd * (-? d) + dUb / dl * ? l (8) The negative sign of ? indicates a one unit increase in the democracy level, because the higher value of d represents the lower level of democracy. dUb = (w + n ( k1 + k2 el ))( c2 e- d ) * ( -? d ) + ( 1-c1 c2 e- d ) n k2 el * ? l The first order condition for maximization requires dUb = 0, which gives: ? l = [ w + n (k1 + k2 el )] ( c2 e- d ) ? d ( 1- c1 c2 e d ) n k2 el (10) (9) The sign of the numerator and the denominator is positive from the fact that the wage rate w and the number of c orrupt deals n cannot be negative. Therefore, the sign of (? /? d) is positive. The positive relationship between d and l follows from the fact that the less 12 democracy in a country, the more the corruption is. In other words, there is an inverse relationship between the democracy level and the level of corruption. The higher the democracy level, the lower the level of corruption, because the high level of democracy in a country provides less opportunity for the government officials to extract more bribes. However, the rate of change of level of corruption and democracy is not uniform. The slope of (? l / ? d) is given by the equation: ? 2l = [(1- c1 c2 e d ) n k2 el ] * [- d{w + n (k1 + k2 el )} ( c2 e- d )] [w + n (k1 + k2 el )] ( c2 e- d ) * (dc2 e d n ? d2 [(1- c1 c2 e d ) n k2 el ]2 k2 el ) (11) The sign of (? 2l / ? d2) is negative. The negative slope of (? l / ? d) indicates that the rate of change of corruption level decreases as d increases. For example, the change of corruption level at the high value of d, say, from d = 10 to d = 9 is negligible. In contrast, with a lower value of d, say, from d = 2 to d = 1, i. e. , at the high level of democracy the change of the level of corruption is big enough to reduce corruption of a country. Thus the situation expresses the view that when a country moves towards democracy from autocracy, the corruption level remains almost at the high level and democratization at the stage of bud does not help to reduce corruption at all, even the chaotic situation provides more favourable conditions to flourish corruption. However, with the continuous process of democratization a country can reach in a level of democracy, where all the institutions like judiciary, police force and press operate effectively and efficiently. Democratisation is thus not simply ‘electoral democracy’ where the visible and formal trappings of political participation mask the continuing control of the state by rulers and ruling elites who manipulate the electoral process to legitimize their retention of power and their continuing use of the state machinery in pursuit of their own interests. The purpose of democratization is to engage the participation of the public in the activities of the state, and ‘the state is seen as the institutional embodiment of a concern 13 with the identification and realisation of public interest, with a rational analysis of norms in a disinterested and benevolent manner’10. There may be no single checklist of a democracy, however, the common lists involve political legitimacy for the state through universal suffrage and regular elections, the peaceful transfer of power, an effective political opposition and representative government, accountability through transparency of decision making and the provision of information, separation of powers, human and civil rights, association, expression and movement, impartial and accessible criminal justice systems and the absence of arbitrary government power11. A fully-formed democracy with the above characteristics, where the value of d closes to zero, increases the probability of detection to almost one and only that state is capable of deterring corruption. 3. Democracy, Corruption and Income In examining the hypothesis on democracy-corruption association, it is important to focus on the average income of a country. In countries where incomes are relatively low, the economy generates minimal wealth for the fast majority of citizens. Low average incomes create certain structural incentives for corrupt behaviours. Countries where incomes are low, the marginal value of money is higher than it is in wealthy countries12. The high utility attached even to small income supplements affects both givers and takers of bribes: paying a bribe can be worth the expense and risk if it is likely to result in greater gains in income; receiving a bribe produces a direct boost in income. Indeed, a government job that offers the possibility of extra legal income supplements would be especially attractive. Thus government positions themselves can become the objects of 10 11 Dyson, K. F. The State Tradition in Western Europe (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1980) 208, 275. Doig, A. , ‘In the State We Trust? Democratisation, Corruption and Development’, in A. Doig and r. Theobald, Corruption and Democratisation (London: Frank Cass, 2000). 12 See Sandholtz, W. and Koetzle, W. , (2000). 14 corrupt activities and the underpaid bureaucrats are more likely than well-paid ones to enrich themselves via corrupt tran sactions. Accordingly, it is expected that relatively low average incomes increase the propensity both to offer and to accept corrupt payments and thus average income will correlate inversely with the level of corruption. The equation (11) shows that a well-functioning democracy ie, when d moves towards zero, a country is able to deter corruption at the highest level. However, it also confirms that relatively higher value of w accelerates the rate of decrease of the level of corruption when a country moves towards well-functioning democracy. This typically implies that very high wages of the bureaucrats can be used as an incentive for deterring corruption. The Transparency International Perceived Corruption Index 200513, generally supports the theoretical expectations about the correlations among corruption, democracy and income. Almost without exceptions, the countries seen as least corrupt are those nations that are known to be well developed democracies with full functioning institutions, and are highly integrated economy. Nations that fall on this end of the corruption spectrum include Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Canada, New Zealand, and Sweden. In contrast, the countries that are viewed as most corrupt are those traditionally seen as authoritarian and are less integrated economy. Examples of most corrupt nations include Bangladesh, Indonesia, Kenya, and Nigeria. The country like Singapore is viewed as most developed and very low levels of corruption, in spite of the fact that Singapore does not have the same level of political freedoms found in many countries perceived as more corrupt. However, the well functioning institution and enforcement of laws made it achievable14. Unlike Singapore, 13 14 See Table 1 in the Appendix. See Klitgaard, R. (1988). 15 India, which has been a democracy for more than fifty years, is seen as quite corrupt due to low economic development and lack of enforcement of laws. It quite evident from the Table1 that countries those are known to be well developed democracies are also economically highly developed. The direct relationship between well developed democracies and economic development is straight forward. Low income countries do not have enough resources, which constrain the government’s ability to commit resources for the development and functioning of democratic institutions. Resource constraints restrain monitoring and detection activities in poor countries. In addition, high levels of corruption mean greater overall resources extracted by the state aggravate the economic situation of poor countries severely. 4. Conclusion This study examines the importance of well functioning institutions of democracy to deter corruption. It is hypothesized that a well-functioning democracy can deter corruption, where the probability of being caught acting corruptly is high. A fully-formed democracy is, of course, more than a democratically elected government. It requires effectively operating institutions particularly, judiciary, police force and press. Under the assumption that detection technology is an increasing function of democracy, the active and effective institutions lead to careful monitoring of agents which increases the probability of detection and punishment of corrupt activities and reduces corruption. The widely accepted axiom in Western Europe and the democratic world is: Eternal Vigilance is the Price of Democracy, may lead to lower levels of corruption. 16 References: Acemoglu, D. , Verdier, T. (2000). The Choice between Market Failures and Corruption. 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